External Actors in the Afghan Problem
continues....

During the Taleban regime, the internal enemies were divided into two warring factions: the Taleban versus the Northern Alliance, the later being a rather loose multi-ethnic five member alliance, suffering from personal rivalries between their leaders. Nonetheless, throughout the war, all of the major factions have been guilty of grave breaches of international humanitarian law. Their war was supported and perpetuated by the involvement of Afghanistan’s neighbours and other states in providing weapons, ammunitions, fuel, and other logistical supports. State and non-state actors across the region and beyond continued to provide new arms and other materials, as well as training and advisory assistance. The arms provided, have been directly used in serious violations of international humanitarian law. These include aerial bombardments of civilian targets, indiscriminate bombings, rocketing and other artillery attacks on civilian-populated areas, reprisal killings of civilians, summary executions of prisoners, rape, and torture.

Prominent neighbours, wielding influence in Afghanistan, included Pakistan and Iran, both functioning as two-way ‘linkage states’ between internal and external actors. The principal supplier to the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (i.e. Taleban controlled Afghanistan) was Pakistan. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates also provided financial support to the Taleban. At least until 1998, Saudi Arabia provided funds and heavily subsidized fuel to the Taleban through Pakistan.

Through their relationship with traders in the UAE and in the Pakistani province of Balochistan and the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP), the Taleban also established links with the local and provincial administrators of Pakistan and with officials in the UAE, who in return benefited from the vast smuggling networks that linked these three countries.

On the other hand, the parties that comprised the United Front, obtained arms primarily from Iran and Russia. Iran supplied rockets, ammunitions, and mines. Iran also provided military training to the United Front forces. The Russian Federation, while providing considerable direct and crucial support services, also helped in the transportation of Iranian aid. Tajikistan was the main country through which assistance from Iran and Russia to the United Front moved, including through the joint Russian-Tajik military base at Kulab.

To be continued.....